Iran–United States relations after 1979

Since 1979, Iran has been embroiled in tense relations with the United States and its allies. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979 that overthrew the American-backed Shah and a hostage crisis, both countries severed relations.[1] Since then, both countries have been involved in numerous direct confrontations, diplomatic incidents, and proxy warfare throughout the Middle East, which has caused the relation between the two to be called an 'international crisis'. Iran and the United States have each sanctioned each other, as well as accusing each other of supporting terrorism. The U.S. has accused Iran of illegally maintaining its nuclear program, as well as supporting terrorism and other sectarian militias throughout the Middle East, including Hezbollah, and of strong rhetoric against Israel, a country of which Iran has questioned its legitimacy.[2]

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Both countries have been embroiled in conflicts in Syria,[3][4][5] Iraq,[6][7] Yemen,[8][9][10][11] and Afghanistan,[12][13][14] supporting opposite sides and conducting operations against each other. Both countries have also come close to war in situations as in the Tanker War[15] and the Persian Gulf Crisis, both of which dramatically escalated tensions between the two. This has caused the United States and Israel to refuse to exclude the use of force to stop the Iranian nuclear program, although they have always stressed that they consider the use of force as a last resort.[16][17]

As a result of tensions the United States has taken the opportunity to broker negotiations and alliances between Israel and Arab States, some of which have viewed Iran with antagonistic ambitions.

Nuclear controversy

Diplomatic activity linked to Iranian nuclear program
Main article: Nuclear program of Iran

The Iranian nuclear program has been controversial as, although the development of a civilian nuclear power program, including enrichment activities, is explicitly allowed under the terms of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), there have been allegations that Iran has been illicitly pursuing a nuclear weapons program, in violation of the NPT (see Iran and weapons of mass destruction).

Under the leadership of the United States and of the European Union, the international community has requested the end of enrichment activities in Iran. The 118 member states of the Non-Aligned Movement however have backed Iran's right to "acquire peaceful nuclear technology".[18]

This diplomatic effort culminated in United Nations Security Council Resolution 1737, adopted (after a significant amount of diplomatic efforts) with the approval of both China and Russia (which held veto power). This resolution imposes specific, but light, economic sanctions solely linked to Iran's nuclear program.

The resolution mentions that in the event that "Iran has not complied with this resolution, [the security council will] adopt further appropriate measures under Article 41 of Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations to persuade Iran to comply with this resolution and the requirements of the IAEA, and underlines that further decisions will be required should such additional measures be necessary." According to the resolution, Iran must comply within 60 days, i.e. before 20 February 2007.

Iran has strongly rejected this resolution. Iran's parliament passed a bill on 27 December 2006 obliging the government to "revise" its cooperation with the International Atomic Energy Agency and to accelerate its drive to master nuclear technology in a reaction to the U.N. resolution. The bill gave President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's government a free hand to adopt a tougher line against the IAEA, including ending its inspections of Iran's atomic facilities.

On March 2, 2007, six key nations, including the 5 permanent members of the UN Security Council, which hold veto power, have agreed to pass a new resolution to impose tougher sanctions on Iran regarding its nuclear issue at the United Nations Security Council, French Foreign Minister Philippe Douste-Blazy said.[19]

In March 2007, Russia announced that construction of a nuclear reactor would be delayed at least two months because Iran had failed to make monthly payments since January. It said the delay could cause "irreversible" damage to the project. Because of the delay, Russia also indefinitely put off the delivery of enriched uranium fuel it had promised to provide Iran in March. Iran, which denied falling behind in payments, was furious, convinced Russia was pressuring the country to bend to the U.N. Security Council, which has placed sanctions against it for refusing to suspend uranium enrichment. The pattern of Russia's behavior has strengthened Iran's determination to obtain the full technology to build nuclear power plants and end its dependence because they say Russia has never been and will never be a reliable partner.[20]

Accusation of hypocrisy and double standards by Iran toward the West

On February 20, 2007, before the expiration of the United Nations Security Council deadline asking Iran to suspend uraninium enrichment, Ali Larijani, Iran's Head of the National Security Council, warned that “double standards will severely damage the credibility of international bodies“. “I think certain countries are seeking adventure on Iran’s nuclear case. You know that some countries until now have not signed the NPT, but are conducting nuclear activities,“ he said, regretting that no action has been taken against such countries while the UN Security Council has passed a resolution against Iran.[21]

On March 18, 2007, Iran, under fire from Western powers over its atomic program, criticized Britain's plans to renew its nuclear arsenal as a "serious setback" to international disarmament efforts. Britain's parliament backed Prime Minister Tony Blair's plans to renew the country's Trident missile nuclear weapons system.

"Britain does not have the right to question others when they're not complying with their obligations" referring to the obligation by the U.K., United States, Russia and France to disarm under the NPT accord and "It is very unfortunate that the UK, which is always calling for non-proliferation not only has not given up the weapons but has taken a serious step toward further development of nuclear weapons," Iran's envoy to the International Atomic Energy Agency, told a conference examining the Trident decision.[22]

In a Question and Answer session following his address to Columbia University on September 24, 2007, the Iranian President remarked: "I think the politicians who are after atomic bombs, or testing them, making them, politically they are backward, retarded."[23]

Opposition inside Iran to nuclear energy policy

On 20 February 2007, a small radical reformist political party, the Islamic Revolutionary Mujahadin Organisation, complained that Iran's drive to produce nuclear energy has endangered national security, the national interest and the destiny of the Iranian people.[24]

On 26 February 2007, the conservative daily Resalat chided Ahmadinejad, saying "neither weakness nor unnecessarily offensive language is acceptable in foreign policy."[25]

Statements by Iranian leaders against Israel
Main article: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Israel
See also: Iran–Israel relations and Iran–Israel proxy conflict

Iranian leaders have made vehement declarations against Israel. Ahmadinejad was widely reported as calling for Israel to be "wiped off the map."[26] However, this translation is disputed, and some have considered it a psyop[27] (See: Translation of phrase "wiped off the map"). A call for Israel's destruction is also attributed to Ayatollah Khomeini, the political leader of the 1979 Islamic Revolution.,[28] and Iranian military parades featured ballistic missiles adorned with slogans such as 'Israel must be uprooted and erased from history'.[29]

The Iranian government has stressed they did not call for an attack on Israel. Rather, they wish to allow Palestinian refugees to return to Palestine, whereupon all inhabitants will vote on its political future.[30] These "clarifications" are seen in Israel as a diplomatic smokescreen.

"For many long years, we have followed Iran's efforts to acquire nuclear weapons, in the guise of a civilian nuclear program," said Prime Minister of Israel Ehud Olmert.[31]

In November 2003, Israel's defence minister Shaul Mofaz has made what sources have described as a warning of "unprecedented severity." Mofaz set out his government's position last week during a visit to the United States stating that "under no circumstances would Israel be able to tolerate nuclear weapons in Iranian possession".[32]

Iran's support for Islamism and terrorism
Main article: Iran and state-sponsored terrorism
See also: Axis of Resistance and The policy of exporting the Islamic Revolution

The government of Iran has arbitrarily funded, armed, and trained Islamist terrorist groups throughout the Muslim World, especially those that are Shia.[33] These include Hezbollah,[34][35] Hamas,[36][37] the Houthis,[38] the Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and the Taliban.[39][40] The U.S. has also alleged of further links between Iran and al-Qaeda, as well as supporting them in the September 11 attacks.

Following the Iranian Revolution, the Central Intelligence Agency published a report concerning the policy of exporting the Islamic Revolution.[41] The report including uprisings, conflicts, and plots throughout the Middle East and revealed Iran's extensive support to revolutionaries in Qatif, Bahrain, and Afghanistan, as well as potential support to other Shia groups across the Middle East. It has also come to light that during the Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict, Iran has come to support sectarian Shia militias,[42] mostly in Iraq and Lebanon, where the two are sharply divided demographically. Iran has also tended to aid anti-American groups and organizations, such as the Taliban, Hamas, and the Kurdistan Workers' Party. Iran also condemns most American activities, as well as NATO activities in general, such as the case for Libya and Afghanistan.[43][44][45][46]

Syria
Further information: Iranian involvement in the Syrian civil war and Iran–Syria relations

Iran and Syria have both been designated as State Sponsors of Terrorism by the United States, due their support for militias. Their relationship can be traced back to the Lebanese Civil War.

During the Syrian civil war, Iran has supported Syria both directly and indirectly,[47][48] sending its proxy forces from Lebanon,[49] Iraq,[50] and Yemen][51] to fight. Iran also founded Liwa Fatemiyoun and Liwa Zainebiyoun in order to recruit Afghans and Pakistanis to fight for the Syrian government, respectively.[52] Many other local pro-Government militias have aligned themselves with Iran and have received Iranian support. Both the domestic and foreign militias have been accused of Human rights abuses and of terrorism due to their tactics, the Syrian government's chemical weapons program, and of indiscriminately repressing civilians. These include the Baqir Brigade, Liwa al-Quds, Syrian Hezbollah (Hezbollah's Syrian branch), and the National Defence Forces, as well as the Syrian Resistance.

The Syrian government itself, having received vital Iranian support, has aligned itself within Iranian interests, including their support for Shi'ite Islamist militias.[53]

Hezbollah

Hezbollah is a Lebanese Shia which is considered a terrorist group by the United States and its allies.[54] Iran, which has sponsored Hezbollah as part of the Axis of Resistance, has armed, trained, funded, and fought alongside Hezbollah, which is uesd as a proxy. Hezbollah has engaged in the Syrian civil war on behalf of the Syrian government, which is considered a state sponsor of terrorism by the U.S..

Originally founded in 1982 as a Shia militia in the Lebanese Civil War, Hezbollah, under the pseudonym Islamic Jihad Organization, carried out the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings and the bombing of U.S. embassy in Beirut, which caused it to be singled as a terrorist group.[55] Hezbollah has also fought against Israel, and maintains a significant Anti-Zionist ideology. Iran has used Hezbollah to fight in conflicts on their behalf, such as the case of the Syrian civil war, which has resulted in the U.S. stating Iran's support for terrorism.[56]

Hamas

Iran has supported Hamas, a Palestinian group formerly affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood, in their struggle against Israel as part of the Iran–Israel proxy conflict. As a result of Hamas's tactics of suicide attacks and attacks against civilians, as well as their interpretation of Islamic rule, the U.S. has designated them as a terrorist group. Hamas has also shown support for other movements such as Hezbollah and the Al-Nusra Front which are considered terrorist.[57][58]

Iraq
Further information: Popular Mobilization Forces, Special Groups (Iraq), and Iranian intervention in Iraq (2014–present)

Iran has taken an active role in Iraq since Saddam Hussein was deposed from power in 2003. Iran has supported many militias within the country, many of which are part of the Popular Mobilization Forces.[59][60] Iran also supported the predecessor of the PMF, the Special Groups. Iran supported these militias during the Iraqi insurgency with Quds Force operatives.[61] Iran also negotiated the appointment of Nouri al-Maliki as prime minister, as he was a member of the Shia Islamist Islamic Dawa Party,[62] which was considered a terrorist group at one point. Iran supported these militias directly following their direct intervention in the War in Iraq. Iran, as well as Hezbollah,[63] fought directly alongside these militias. Even after the end of the war, Iran maintained their presence in the country, as well as their support for the militias. Among these militias, Asa'ib Ahl al-Haq, Kata'ib Hezbollah, and the Badr Organization, as well as the former Mahdi Army, were all considered terrorist for their tactics used in these wars.

Iranian activity in Iraq

Iran has taken an active role in Iraq. Talks between the two nations (Iran and Iraq) have been successful, with Iran even going so far as to build a major Iranian Bank branch inside Iraq.[64] Iran stresses that it supports the government of Iraq. Indeed, the main party that supports the Iraqi government and the US coalition, SCIRI, is also close to Iran. Its leader, Abdul Aziz al-Hakim, who has been invited at the White House, was a refugee in Iran when Saddam Hussein was the leader of Iraq. On 21 February 2007, his own son, coming from Iran with armed guards, was arrested by US forces and later released with excuses by US forces.[65]

The US have, however, contended that Iran supports some Shiite militias that are alleged to be against the Iraq government, especially the Mahdi army of Muqtada al-Sadr. According to the Iranian ambassador to Iraq, the US is currently detaining 6 Iranian diplomats and 30 Iranian nationals in Iraq.[66] This number has neither been confirmed nor denied by US officials. On February 28, 2007, the United States however agreed to participate to an international conference to be called by the government of Iraq to discuss Iraq security crisis, where the government of Iran is also invited. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice said that the United States would join the meeting and that Washington supported the Iraqi government's invitation to Iran and Syria.[67]

Iranian officials arrested by US forces in Baghdad
Main article: Qods Force § 2006 Arrests in Iraq

On December 25, 2006, the United States arrested at least four senior military officials on their visit to Baghdad.[68] It has been mentioned that the Iranians have been arrested after US soldiers raided the compound of Shiite leader Abdul Aziz al-Hakim, leader of the influential Shiite Supreme Council for Islamic Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI). President of Iraq Talabani, a strong US ally, has asked for their release. Hiwa Othman, Talabani's media adviser, told Reuters: "The president is unhappy. He is talking to the Americans about it as we speak." Othman said the Iranian diplomats came to Iraq at the invitation of the Iraqi leader but he was not aware if they had met with him."The invitation was within the framework of an agreement between Iran and Iraq to improve the security situation." Finally, it seems that they have been released on 30 December. One of the commanders, identified by officials simply as Chizari, was the third-highest-ranking official of the Iranian Revolutionary Guards' al-Quds Brigade, the unit most active in aiding, arming and training groups outside Iran, including Hezbollah and Islamic Jihad, U.S. officials said.

On 4 January 2007, the BBC's flagship political programme Newsnight cited British authorities in Iraq as saying that while the arrests produced highly important intelligence information, there was no "smoking gun" about weapons supplies or attacks. "There was discussion of whether the Maliki government would succeed, who should be in which ministerial jobs... It was a very significant meeting," one official said. The BBC said US sensitivity to the matter comes from discovering evidence that Iran is trying to turn the situation in Iraq to its advantage, to the extent of trying to influence the make-up of the Baghdad government.

Attack by US forces on an Iranian consulate in Irbil
Main article: US attack on Iranian liaison office in Arbil

Five United States helicopters landed on the roof of the consulate in the northern city of Irbil. American soldiers broke down the doors, detained five people and took away papers and computers. The raid came as American leaders step up their rhetoric against Iran. U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates said Tehran is arming the insurgents in Iraq.[69]

An Iranian foreign ministry official in a meeting with the Iraqi ambassador to Tehran here on Friday stressed that Baghdad should not allow the United States to interfere in Iran-Iraq relations. "We expect the Iraqi government to take immediate measures to set the aforesaid individuals free and to condemn the U.S. troopers for the measure," the official stressed. For his part, Iraqi ambassador to Tehran expressed regret over the incident and pledged to pursue the case through the officials of his country.[70] According to Associated Press, The Iraqi foreign minister called Sunday 14 January for the release of five Iranians detained by U.S. forces in what he said was a legitimate mission in northern Iraq.

US accusation of supporting attacks on American troops
Further information: Kill or Capture strategy and Karbala provincial headquarters raid

In his January 10, 2007, address to the nation, President Bush asserted that succeeding in Iraq begins with addressing Iran and Syria. "Iran is providing material support for attacks on American troops. We will disrupt the attacks on our forces. We'll interrupt the flow of support from Iran and Syria. And we will seek out and destroy the networks providing advanced weaponry and training to our enemies in Iraq," Bush said.[71]

During the following weeks, Bush's statements were criticized for preparing the US for an attack on Iran without Congressional approval. His actions with regards to Iran were also called "offensive and provocative."[72]

On 2 February 2007, Bush administration officials acknowledged that they had yet to compile evidence strong enough to back up publicly their claims that Iran is fomenting violence against U.S. troops in Iraq.

On 12 February 2007, US administration organized a briefing in Bagdad to make their case. Journalists were told that the use of the deadliest form of roadside bomb known as EFP's – explosively formed penetrators – had nearly doubled last year. They were said there was a "growing body of evidence pointing to Iranian supply of EFPs to Iraqi extremist groups".

"They condemn us for making problems in Iraq, but they don't have any documentary proof," Iran Foreign Ministry spokesman Mohammad Ali Hossaini told reporters. "Lots of this evidence is fake, artificial. For example, when they wanted to start a war in Iraq, they made plenty of evidence that there were lots of weapons in Iraq, though the investigators of the International Atomic Energy Agency said they couldn't find any weapons in Iraq," he said. "Right now they're using weapons [with certain markings], but it doesn't prove where these weapons came from.

Iranian envoy kidnapped by Iraqi gunmen
Main article: Baghdad kidnapping of Iranian diplomat (February 2007)

Iraqi gunmen dressed in military uniforms kidnapped the second secretary of the Iranian embassy, Jalal Sharafi, on February 4, 2007 as he drove through central Baghdad. One official of the Iraqi government stated that the abduction occurred at the hands of a special army unit that reports directly to the US military command, but this was denied by American military officials.[73] Iran's Foreign Ministry has condemned the kidnapping and pinned the blame on the US.[74]

Economic sanctions against Iran
Main article: Sanctions against Iran

Since the 1979 revolution in Iran, the country has been under constant US unilateral sanctions. The first U.S. sanctions against Iran were formalized in November 1979, and during the hostage crisis, many sanctions were leveled against the Iranian government. By 1987 the import of Iranian goods into the United States had been banned. In 1995, President Clinton issued Executive Order 12957, banning U.S. investment in Iran's energy sector, followed a few weeks later by Executive Order 12959 of May 9, 1995, eliminating all trade and investment and virtually all interaction between the United States and Iran. For details of current US sanctions, see the page of US Treasury Archived 2010-12-03 at the Wayback Machine.

The United States have not been followed yet by other countries. But the UN sanctions are the first international sanctions levied on Iran. The United States is pushing for more economic sanctions against Iran.[75] Under a proposal by Germany, which holds the EU presidency during the first semester of 2007, the European Union is also considering imposing sanctions that go beyond the UN sanctions[76] but has not made any decision yet.

In June 2007 leading EU countries including Britain, France and Germany cautioned Iran that it faces further sanctions for expanding uranium enrichment and curbing U.N. inspectors' access to its nuclear program. "Iran continues to ignore its obligations and has not taken any steps to build confidence in the exclusively peaceful nature of its program". Additionally, the EU offers Iran suspension of sanctions and a package of trade and industrial benefits if it suspends its nuclear program.[77]

The Iran Sanctions Enhancement Act of 2007, introduced by Representative Mark Kirk, Republican–IL, and Representative Rob Andrews, Democrat-New Jersey, would threaten sanctions against any company or individual that provides Iran with refined petroleum products or engages in an activity that could contribute to the enhancement of Iran's ability to import refined products after December 31. The bill could potentially lead to sanctions against gasoline brokers, tankers and insurers.[78]

Alleged preparation for a war

United States and Israel have refused to exclude the use of force to stop the Iranian nuclear program. They have, however, always stressed that they consider the use of force as a last resort.

Starting in 2005, several analysts, including journalist Seymour Hersh,[79] former UN weapons of mass destruction inspector in Iraq from 1991 to 1998, Scott Ritter,[80] Joseph Cirincione, director for non-proliferation at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,[81] Professor at the University of San Francisco and Middle East editor for the Foreign Policy in Focus Project, Stephen Zunes[82] claimed that the United States planned a military attack against Iran.

Dec 19, 2006: According to CBS News report, the Pentagon is planning to bolster its presence in the Persian Gulf as a warning to Iran's continuously defiant government. CBS News national security correspondent David Martin says the U.S. military build-up, which would include adding a second aircraft carrier to the one already in the Gulf, is being proposed as a response to what U.S. officials view as an increasingly provocative Iranian leadership.[83]

Dec 22, 2006: US Defense Secretary Robert Gates said that an increased US naval presence in the Persian Gulf is not a response to any action by Iran but a message that the United States will keep and maintain its regional footprint "for a long time."

Jan 6, 2007, a news agency reported that Israeli military sources had revealed a plan to strike the enrichment plant at Natanz using low-yield nuclear "bunker-busters."[84] The disclosure may have been done to increase pressure on Iran to cease enrichment activities. The Israeli government denied this report. In Tehran, Iran's Foreign Ministry spokesman Mohammad Ali Hosseini told a news conference that the newspaper report "will make clear to the world public opinion that the Zionist regime is the main menace to global peace and the region." He said "any measure against Iran will not be left without a response and the invader will regret its act immediately.".[85]

Jan 11, 2007: Administration officials said that the battle group would be stationed within quick sailing distance of Iran, a response to the growing concern that Iran is building up its own missile capacity and naval power, with the goal of military dominance in the Gulf.[86]

Jan 12, 2007: President Bush accused Iran in a speech this week of helping launch attacks against U.S. troops in Iraq. His remarks were followed by combative comments from his top war advisors, new moves by U.S. naval forces and a raid Thursday in the Kurdish-controlled city of Irbil. The administration moved Friday 12 January to defuse concerns that it was planning or inviting a confrontation with Tehran. At a news conference, White House Press Secretary Tony Snow dismissed as an "urban legend" suggestions that the United States was preparing for another war. Similar denials were issued by Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates and Marine Gen. Peter Pace, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.[87]

Jan 14, 2007: A former Russian Black Sea Fleet Commander, Admiral Edward Baltin, says he believes the presence of so many US nuclear submarines in the Persian Gulf meant a strike was likely.[88]

Jan 24, 2007: Iranian officials said Wednesday that they had received a delivery of advanced Russian air defense systems that are designed to protect its nuclear facilities at Isfahan, Bushehr, Tehran, and eastern Iran from attack, primarily from Israeli or American aircraft.[89]

Feb 18, 2007: According to Scott Ritter, who reiterated his view that Iran will be attacked by the US, the Pentagon has negotiated basing rights in Romania and Bulgaria so that B-1 and B-2 bombers can operate out of airfields there.[90]

Jul 6, 2009: It was reported that Joe Biden gave a green light to Israel for a military attack on Iran,[91] however it was a misunderstanding, no green light was given to attack.[92]

Opposition to a possible war
Main article: Opposition to war against Iran

Organized opposition to a possible future military attack against Iran by the United States (US) is known to have started during 2005–2006. Beginning in early 2005, journalists, activists, and academics such as Seymour Hersh, Scott Ritter, Joseph Cirincione, and Jorge E. Hirsch began publishing claims that American concerns over the alleged threat posed by Iran's nuclear program might lead the US government to take military action against that country in the future. These reports, and the concurrent escalation of tensions between Iran and some Western governments, prompted the formation of grassroots organisations, including Campaign Against Sanctions and Military Intervention in Iran in the US and the United Kingdom, to advocate against potential military strikes on Iran. Additionally, several organizations and individuals, including the Director-General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Mohamed ElBaradei, a former United Nations weapons inspector in Iraq, Scott Ritter, the Non-Aligned Movement of 118 states, and the Arab League, have publicly stated their opposition to a would-be attack on Iran.

See also

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