Virivore

A virivore (sometimes referred to as virovore) is an organism which obtains energy and nutrients from the consumption of viruses. Virivory is a well-described process[1] in which organisms, primarily heterotrophic protists,[2][3][4][5][6][7] but also some metazoans[8][9] consume viruses as a source of nutrition.

Ecological implications

Viruses are the most abundant biological entities in aquatic ecosystems. For example, marine viruses have typical abundances of millions of particles per mL,[10] with similar abundances in freshwater,[11][12] and are particularly rich in phosphorus and nitrogen.[13] It has been estimated based on in situ grazing rates, that when in the presence of natural abundances of bacteria and viruses, a protistan grazer could obtain up to 9% of the carbon, 14% of the nitrogen and 28% of the phosphorus that is supplied by bacteria.[2] Moreover, the freshwater ciliate Halteria was able to increase in abundance when its only source of food was a large Chlorovirus that infects freshwater green algae in environments.[7] Although viruses can be an important nutritional source for heterotrophic protists, in natural waters they are typically not in high enough concentrations to be a major source of viral removal;[2] however, in benthic systems, metazoans may have a larger role in the removal of viruses.[9]

References
  1. Mayers, Kyle M. J.; Kuhlisch, Constanze; Basso, Jonelle T. R.; Saltvedt, Marius R.; Buchan, Alison; Sandaa, Ruth-Anne (2023-01-30). Prasad, Vinayaka R. (ed.). "Grazing on Marine Viruses and Its Biogeochemical Implications". mBio: e01921–21. doi:10.1128/mbio.01921-21. ISSN 2150-7511. PMID 36715508. S2CID 256388593.
  2. González, Juan M.; Suttle, Curtis A. (1993). "Grazing by marine nanoflagellates on viruses and virus-sized particles: Ingestion and digestion" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 94 (1): 1–10. Bibcode:1993MEPS...94....1G. doi:10.3354/meps094001.
  3. Gowing, Marcia M (1993). "Large virus-like particles from vacuoles of phaeodarian radiolarians and from other marine samples" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 101: 33–42. Bibcode:1993MEPS..101...33G. doi:10.3354/meps101033.
  4. Deng, Li; Krauss, Steffen; Feichtmayer, Judith; Hofmann, Roland; Arndt, Hartmut; Griebler, Christian (2014). "Grazing of heterotrophic flagellates on viruses is driven by feeding behaviour". Environmental Microbiology Reports. 6 (4): 325–330. doi:10.1111/1758-2229.12119. PMID 24992530.
  5. Brown, Julia M.; Labonté, Jessica M.; Brown, Joseph; Record, Nicholas R.; Poulton, Nicole J.; Sieracki, Michael E.; Logares, Ramiro; Stepanauskas, Ramunas (2020). "Single Cell Genomics Reveals Viruses Consumed by Marine Protists". Frontiers in Microbiology. 11: 524828. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.524828. PMC 7541821. PMID 33072003.
  6. Olive, Margot; Moerman, Felix; Fernandez-Cassi, Xavier; Altermatt, Florian; Kohn, Tamar (2022). "Removal of Waterborne Viruses by Tetrahymena pyriformis Is Virus-Specific and Coincides with Changes in Protist Swimming Speed". Environmental Science & Technology. 56 (7): 4062–4070. Bibcode:2022EnST...56.4062O. doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c05518. PMC 8988290. PMID 35258957.
  7. DeLong, John P.; Van Etten, James L.; Al-Ameeli, Zeina; Agarkova, Irina V.; Dunigan, David D. (2023-01-03). "The consumption of viruses returns energy to food chains". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 120 (1): e2215000120. Bibcode:2023PNAS..12015000D. doi:10.1073/pnas.2215000120. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 9910503. PMID 36574690. S2CID 255219850.
  8. Hadas, Eran; Marie, Dominique; Shpigel, Muki; Ilan, Micha (2006). "Virus predation by sponges is a new nutrient-flow pathway in coral reef food webs". Limnology and Oceanography. 51 (3): 1548–1550. Bibcode:2006LimOc..51.1548H. doi:10.4319/lo.2006.51.3.1548. S2CID 16272007.
  9. Welsh, Jennifer E.; Steenhuis, Peter; de Moraes, Karlos Ribeiro; van der Meer, Jaap; Thieltges, David W.; Brussaard, Corina P. D. (2020). "Marine virus predation by non-host organisms". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 5221. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.5221W. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-61691-y. PMC 7089979. PMID 32251308.
  10. Suttle, Curtis A. (2005). "Viruses in the sea". Nature. 437 (7057): 356–361. Bibcode:2005Natur.437..356S. doi:10.1038/nature04160. PMID 16163346. S2CID 4370363.
  11. Clasen, Jessica L.; Brigden, Sean M.; Payet, Jerome P.; Suttle, Curtis A. (2008). "Evidence that viral abundance across oceans and lakes is driven by different biological factors". Freshwater Biology. 53 (6): 1090–1100. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2008.01992.x.
  12. Jacquet, Stéphan; Miki, Takeshi; Noble, Rachel; Peduzzi, Peter; Wilhelm, Steven (2010). "Viruses in aquatic ecosystems: important advancements of the last 20 years and prospects for the future in the field of microbial oceanography and limnology". Advances in Oceanography and Limnology. 1 (1): 97–141. doi:10.1080/19475721003743843.
  13. Jover, Luis F.; Effler, T. Chad; Buchan, Alison; Wilhelm, Steven W.; Weitz, Joshua S. (2014). "The elemental composition of virus particles: implications for marine biogeochemical cycles". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 12 (7): 519–528. doi:10.1038/nrmicro3289. ISSN 1740-1534. PMID 24931044. S2CID 17421986.
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